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  • Founded Date August 26, 1924
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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The synthetic intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms emphasizing science and technology as the country’s primary efficient force.

The initial stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and experienced considerable challenges due to lack of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind most Western countries in regards to AI advancement. A majority of the research study was led by researchers who had gotten higher education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has progressively established a nationwide program for artificial intelligence development and became one of the leading nations in artificial intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to become a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business ought to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s quick AI development has actually significantly impacted Chinese society in many locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most affected by more AI release.

The private sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in lots of elements as there are couple of present existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations meant to restrict China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the development of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and technology for China’s financial growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research and development did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research publication on artificial intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have been part of China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further broadened its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study tasks has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy concern for the development of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was likewise discussed in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was held in China. This event accompanied the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s advancement of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a tactical technology that has actually ended up being a “focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The document prompted considerable investment in a number of strategic areas associated with AI and required close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the celebration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is a vital component to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year experienced the emergence of numerous application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council mentioned the need for huge talent acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, along with public and private investments. [14] Some of the specified inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI method consist of the capacity of synthetic intelligence for industrial improvement, better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to various fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the introduction of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the policies worrying deepfakes, which became reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services security requirements, including specs for data collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy dialogue with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed issue over AI security threats, consisting of abuse of information or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors created with generative artificial intelligence to deliver phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be vital to the future of international military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council aims for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its location as a worldwide leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to combine state preparation and control while some operational flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, creating uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a leading research concern and ranks AI first among “frontier industries” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector often supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing primarily focused on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The federal government financing also supported numerous AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research revealed that, while China is enormously purchasing all elements of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing cars are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s state-of-the-art industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and regional commercial advancement and community. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, greatly focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competitors for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play an essential function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private cooperations, and international cooperations and projects with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing responsibilities on AI companies, the total approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population produces a massive quantity of available data for business and scientists, which provides an important advantage in the race of huge data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of web users, producing huge amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is among the most widely used AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its residents assists more train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not just favorable and important for corporations to further AI R&D but likewise offers remarkable economic prospective attracting both international and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the information and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures mentioning that tech companies will be bound to ensure AI-generated material supports the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, business bear legal responsibility for training data and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content might not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language model to the general public, business need to look for approval from the CAC to license that the model refuses to answer particular questions relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries consisting of training data sets commonly used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local business with training information that CCP leaders think about allowable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has warned that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese artificial intelligence design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to answer questions associating with things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most firms [who?] hold optimistic views about AI‘s financial effect on China’s long-lasting financial growth. In the past, traditional markets in China have actually fought with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, operational costs are anticipated to decrease while an increase in effectiveness creates profits development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of properly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI development because of rising needs for workers with advanced skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is concentrated in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98

Military impact

China looks for to construct a “first-rate” military by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on using unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report released afterwards revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of a widening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, generating a typical operating photo, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which looks for to incorporate sensors and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of boundaries exist in between Chinese industrial companies, university research labs, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct means of guiding AI development priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian functions. To further strengthen these ties the Chinese federal government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business companies and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of information labeling to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily appropriate AI applications, possibly giving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual home. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from purchasing U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model use prohibition for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, especially given that China faces difficulties in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the exact same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research items. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China specifically wish to address military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently developed the first kids’s educational program in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific focus on user protection, data privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will remain in full decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring vital needs in long-lasting research and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many nationwide federal governments have established legislation resolving information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure categorizing all kinds of data collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech business in China are needed to classify their information into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts related to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI evaluates the evidence presented and uses appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology business might wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to encourage personal tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to global AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards securing a global technological supremacy – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article published by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government officials showed extremely keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly focus on cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive necessary change.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and enormous untapped potential, however the West has world-leading knowledge and a strong research study culture. Rather than fret about China’s development, it would be wise for Western countries to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the advancement of AI creates challenges for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the threats that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing results on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of workers and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital accumulation and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the primary responsible actor in the location of generative AI (creating new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI risks escalating military competitors between nations which the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country however will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have actually occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally optimistic relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study performed throughout 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI surpass the risks, the highest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student found that 80% concurred or highly concurred that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% believed it should be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang area to spot Uyghurs is “the first known example of a government deliberately utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have found that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, particularly by local municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

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