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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and innovation as the nation’s main efficient force.

The preliminary stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and experienced considerable difficulties due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research study was led by scientists who had actually received college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has actually progressively established a nationwide agenda for expert system development and emerged as one of the leading countries in expert system research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company needs to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI development has significantly affected Chinese society in numerous locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the leading markets that would be the most affected by further AI deployment.

The personal sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are few present existing borders. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law addressing AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade restrictions planned to restrict China’s access to advanced computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the development of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and innovation for China’s financial growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research and development did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s federal government approached these difficulties by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more providing federal government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on artificial intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have actually belonged to China’s national innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has further broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study jobs has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the advancement of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, artificial intelligence was also pointed out in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The very first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event accompanied the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a tactical technology that has ended up being a “focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The document prompted substantial investment in a number of strategic locations associated with AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the occasion of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an important component to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The same year saw the emergence of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council specified the requirement for massive talent acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, as well as public and personal financial investments. [14] Some of the mentioned inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI technique include the potential of synthetic intelligence for commercial transformation, much better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies across foundational, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence broadened to numerous fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of big language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released China’s very first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the guidelines concerning deepfakes, which ended up being efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on standard generative AI services safety requirements, including specifications for information collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy discussion with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed issue over AI security risks, including abuse of information or the use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors developed with generative artificial intelligence to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a big language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

Since 2024, numerous Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be important to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council intends for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the global leader in the development of artificial intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to meld state preparation and control while some operational versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, producing uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a top research concern and ranks AI first amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector typically supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding generally focused on sophisticated and applied research. [38] The federal government financing also supported multiple AI R&D in the personal sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research study showed that, while China is massively investing in all aspects of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to national guidance on developing China’s modern commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and local industrial development and environment. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play an essential function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate cooperation, public-private cooperations, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI scientists had completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in controling AI services and imposing obligations on AI companies, the overall approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates a huge quantity of available data for business and researchers, which offers a vital advantage in the race of huge data. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of internet users, producing huge quantities of data for device learning and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is one of the most extensively employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of information from its citizens assists further train and broaden AI abilities. China’s market is not just conducive and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D but also provides tremendous economic prospective attracting both global and domestic firms to join the AI market. The extreme advancement of the info and interaction innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets over the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft measures mentioning that tech companies will be obliged to ensure AI-generated content supports the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, respects copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal duty for training information and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced material may not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the general public, business need to look for approval from the CAC to certify that the design declines to address particular questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a business that maintains libraries containing training information sets typically used for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies local business with training information that CCP leaders consider permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to answer concerns associating with things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most companies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-term financial development. In the past, standard markets in China have actually had problem with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional expenses are expected to decrease while an increase in effectiveness produces income development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and absence of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI advancement since of increasing needs for laborers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial development is concentrated in coastal areas rather than inland. [61]

An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to construct a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on the usage of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching various types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. plans for defense development and fears of a widening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China intends to utilize AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, producing a typical operating picture, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which looks for to incorporate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, decision assistance, software application, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few borders exist in between Chinese industrial business, university lab, the military, and the central government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of assisting AI advancement priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly developed for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information labeling to create the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily pertinent AI applications, possibly giving it legal access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model usage prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly because China faces challenges in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while roughly the same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research study items. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China particularly want to address military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the very first children’s academic program in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific emphasis on user security, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI concepts requiring important needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and lots of national governments have actually established legislation attending to data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to resolve brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative structure categorizing all sort of data collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech companies in China are required to categorize their data into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements connected to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the proof presented and uses appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology companies may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [wise court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has looked for to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has also been promoted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to global AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained causes of China’s anxiety towards securing a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to make the most of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government officials demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating expertise and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary modification.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and huge untapped potential, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be sensible for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has actually stunted the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI creates difficulties for holistic national security, including the dangers that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher injustice of workers and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital accumulation and political power in fewer economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the main accountable star in the area of generative AI (creating brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI risks intensifying military competitors in between countries and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one nation however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential danger from synthetic intelligence have actually happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI outweigh the threats, the highest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student found that 80% concurred or strongly concurred that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% believed it needs to be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively utilized AI facial recognition has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, release of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a government deliberately utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of discontent are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, specifically by regional municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

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